Ancient Hunters Strategically Targeted Reindeer-rich Territory

Prehistoric hunter-gatherers deliberately targeted prime reindeer as part of a logistically organized seasonal subsistence strategy according to new archaeological evidence.

People from the Late Gravettian era, more than 27,000 years ago, travelled many kilometers to hunting grounds in the foothills of Bohemia in what is now Chechia, armed with weapons and butchery equipment.

There, they knew they would find reindeer in sufficient quantity to supply them with meat and valuable resources such as fat, bone and antler before the freezing winter conditions returned.

The research, led by archaeologists from the University of Exeter with partners across Europe, reveals that the Gravettian hunters were not following migrating herds of reindeer over long distances, but targeting relatively sedentary populations during early autumn, an optimal time of year for hunting reindeer.

Picking the Bones For Data

The focus of the research centered on a kill-butchery site called Lubná VI, located approximately 50km (31 miles) west of Prague. The area has been the focus of archaeological interest since the 1890s, but Lubná VI itself was not discovered until 2006, and has been the focus of numerous excavations since.

One of those digs – in 2018 – unearthed stone tools, bones and two hearths, which led to the identification of at least seven reindeer, along with the remains of several other species.

Radiocarbon dating of one of the bones enabled the researchers to conclude that the site would have been in operation around 27,500-27,100 years ago, and analysis of the tools estimated that they originated at least 120km (75 mi) away, in either southwest Poland or Saxony.

For the project, the team selected 21 teeth for strontium, oxygen and carbon isotope analysis, a technique that enables scientists to examine the chemical make-up of enamel for evidence of where the animal had grazed on vegetation. Eleven of the teeth were subjected to additional testing to establish the season in which the animal died.

The results revealed that, unlike many modern herds of reindeer, there was little to no evidence of long-distance movement, with the majority living on the foothills of the Bohemian-Moravian highlands and in the flat Bohemian Cretaceous plains. Some seasonal migration within or between the two areas was detected in a small number of the deer.

Analysis of the dental cement was possible for three of the animals and indicated that all three had died during in the autumn or early winter.

Dr Pryor, who coordinated the project alongside colleagues in Czechia, Hungary, Poland and the University of Southampton, said the results showed for the first time that the reindeer had adapted to their Central Europe environment – and their hunters had come to understand this.

A beachcomber’s guide to finding and identifying mermaid’s purses

If you have ever been beachcombing for treasures along the shoreline then you may have been lucky enough to find a mermaid’s purse. They may not look like much, but these dried-out leathery pouches are actually the used egg cases of sharks and skates, created to develop and protect their babies.

Around 43% of all Chondrichthyes species (cartilaginous fish including sharks, rays, skates and chimaeras) give birth to their offspring in these purses. Between them they produce a diverse array of different types, sizes and colours, that eventually wash up on our beaches when they’ve been emptied.

However the egg cases can still be valuable even after they’re discarded, they provide an insight into the hidden lives of sharks and are also very useful for conservation work. So here is a quick guide on how to find and identify different egg cases, as well as how you can help researchers out.

What is a mermaid’s purse?

There are two types of reproduction amongst sharks, rays and the other ‘non-bony’ fish (known as Chondrichthyes). The first is viviparity, where mothers give birth to live young known as pups like mammals such as us, the second is oviparity, where mothers lay undeveloped eggs in specialised cases like birds and reptiles.

Most large species of shark and all true rays are viviparous and give birth to live young, whereas the smaller shark species such as catsharks and a sub-family of rays known as skates are oviparous.

Instead of developing their young in-utero and giving birth to them, they produce egg cases that act as a detachable uterus to develop and protect their offspring separately.

They are often laid on the seafloor in places such as seagrass meadows or rocky crevices to hide them from predators. It is these egg cases which are commonly referred to as mermaids’ purses.

Egg case 101

As the name suggests egg cases initially contain the fertilized egg of a shark or skate, which over time develops into an embryo. They are made out of the fibrous protein collagen which forms tough leathery pouches.

Almost all egg cases contain a single egg, although big skate and mottled skate cases can contain up to seven. After the cases are released from the mother they provide the embryo with all the nutrients and energy it needs to develop, including oxygen-rich seawater which can be absorbed from its surroundings.

This process usually only takes a few months for most species, however in some species like the critically-endangered white skate it can take up to 15 months. Once the babies have reached a point where they can survive on their own without their purses they swim out of a small opening at the top of the case and leave their ‘artificial mother’ behind.

To see developing embryos inside egg cases for yourselves, check out the amazing video below.

Where can you find them?

Once the baby sharks and skates have fully developed and left their purses, the empty casings are then carried around by ocean currents and occasionally wash up on our shoreline.

The best place to find a mermaid’s purse is therefore at the high tide line on most beaches. The high tide line is easily identified by the long bands of dried seaweed that stretch across a beach.

It is actually amongst the seaweed where you are most likely to find a purse, but you have to look closely because the dried out cases look very much like the seaweed they are surrounded by.

If you have no luck at the high tide line, then the next best place to look is in rock pools, because they can often get trapped in them as the tide goes out.

You won’t always be able to find a mermaid’s purse every time you go to a beach, but don’t let that stop you searching other areas or coming back for another go at a later date.

Different types of egg cases

Whilst there is a clearly defined shape and structure to most egg cases there is also a large variety of different sizes, types and variations between species, much like how different birds lay their own unique eggs.

The general appearance of a mermaid’s purse is a black or brown leathery pouch with either tendrils or horns coming off each or either end. For catsharks the pouch will tend to be more rounded and have long spindly tendrils, which can often get wrapped around in seaweed or other egg cases. For skates the pouches tend to be more rectangular and have defined horns in place of tendrils.

A more bizarre example is chimaeras who produce bottle-shaped pouches with a pair of feathery fins down its sides or the bullhead sharks who produce spiral auger-shaped egg cases designed to get wedged into crevices between rocks. However it is unlikely you will find these more bizarre designs, especially on your first try.

Identifying what you have found

So how do you figure out which species has produce the egg case you have found? One of the big problems with identification is that purses you find on the beach are dried out and so often misshaped or decoloured.

Therefore the best way to make a successful identification is to take it home and re-hydrate it. You can do this by placing it in a bowl of water, preferably from the sea, for a couple of hours. You will notice that it will change shape, get darker and will feel more slimy if you touch it.

At this point you might also be able to find the opening the juvenile shark or skate swam out of when it was fully developed. Now you have a re-hydrate eggcase you will be able to determine more details about the shape, size, colour and any other features you need to make a successful ID. For the best results use online guides (like this awesome one by Marine Dimensions) and you will then know for sure what you have found.

Reporting your findings 

Finding and identifying mermaids’ purses can be great fun for young children on family outings or just avid shark enthusiasts, but it can also provide really important and helpful information for marine researchers. Egg cases provide clues as to where certain species of shark or skates can be found, especially the nursery grounds that are important for juveniles.

This information can then be used to help inform conservation measures to help protect sharks and rays across the world. Citizen science projects involving egg cases can be found across the world online. However if you  in the UK, where we have a lot of catshark and skate species, then you can report your findings to the Shark Trust’s Great Eggcase Hunt.

Just remember to record where and when you found your case in the first place. Once you have made your contribution to science then why not keep your specimen or even start your own collection. If you leave your case in a warm dry place for a few days it will dry out properly and will stay intact for years.

Archaeologists Unearth 2500-Year-Old Settlement in North Macedonia

Recent archaeological excavations at Gradishte, near the village of Crnobuki in North Macedonia, have unveiled a significant ancient settlement that challenges previous assumptions about the site’s historical importance.

Initially thought to be a mere military outpost established to fend off Roman incursions, the findings suggest that Gradishte was, in fact, a thriving city with a rich cultural and economic life, predating the Roman Empire by centuries.

The research, conducted by a collaborative team from Cal Poly Humboldt and Macedonia’s Institute and Museum–Bitola, has revealed that the acropolis of Gradishte spans at least seven acres.

This expansive area has yielded a wealth of artifacts, including stone axes, coins, a clay theater ticket, pottery, game pieces, and textile tools, all of which provide concrete evidence of a prosperous settlement dating back to at least 360 B.C.

Archaeologist Nick Angeloff has even posited that this site may represent the lost capital of the Kingdom of Lyncestis, an ancient polity established in the seventh century B.C. “This discovery is significant,” Angeloff stated.

“It highlights the complex networks and power structures of ancient Macedonia, especially given the city’s strategic location along trade routes to Constantinople.

Historical figures such as Octavian and Agrippa may have traversed this area en route to confront Cleopatra and Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium.” The site, first mentioned in literature in 1966, remained largely unexplored until recent years.

Modern archaeological techniques, including ground-penetrating radar and drone-deployed LIDAR, have facilitated a deeper understanding of the settlement’s size and influence. The discovery of a coin minted during the lifetime of Alexander the Great (325-323 B.C.) has pushed back the timeline of the city’s establishment, suggesting human occupation may date back to the Bronze Age (3,300-1,200 B.C.).

Engin Nasuh, curator-advisor archaeologist at the National Institute and Museum–Bitola, emphasized the importance of these findings: “We’re only beginning to scratch the surface of what we can learn about this period. The discoveries not only illuminate North Macedonia’s past but also contribute to a broader understanding of ancient Western civilization.”

The artifacts unearthed at Gradishte, including charcoal and bone samples, have been dated between 360 B.C. and 670 A.D., indicating a long period of habitation and cultural development.

This ancient Macedonian state, one of the earliest modern states in Europe, played a crucial role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of the region.

As the excavation continues, students, faculty, and researchers from both institutions are dedicated to uncovering the full story of this ancient city. Nasuh likened their efforts to assembling a large mosaic, where each new discovery adds a piece to the overall picture of early European civilizations.

“This ongoing work promises to reveal more about the intricate networks and vibrant culture of ancient Macedonia,” he concluded. “With each subsequent study, we are one step closer to understanding the complexities of our shared history.”

The findings at Gradishte not only reshape our understanding of North Macedonia’s historical narrative but also highlight the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations, offering valuable insights into the development of early European states and their lasting influence on the world.